Field of the Invention
The invention relates to methods and apparatus for enabling the collection of dermal and non-dermal images using a non-invasive imaging device, the development of a skin state based at least in part on analysis of such images, and the monitoring of the skin state by, at least, a collection and analysis of subsequent images. The invention further pertains to the field of skin care devices and systems capable of facilitating skin care decisions, more specifically the field of devices for skin condition assessment, skin care regimen recommendation, and skin care regimen effectiveness tracking.
The present invention also relates to an image processing technique. More particularly, the present invention relates to determining a skin photo type of a captured image in a Red Green Blue (RGB) color imaging system and is also applicable in classification of other skin characteristics (e.g. elasticity, melanin, oil concentration etc.), melanoma, skin related tumors and skin related disorders.
Description of the Related Art
Opto-Magnetic Dental Analysis.
In general, teeth comprise of the following parts, namely enamel, dentin, cementum and pulp. Specifically, tooth enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body. Tooth enamel with dentin, cementum and dental pulp is one of the four major tissues, which make up the tooth in vertebrates. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral whereas the remaining four percent of enamel is composed of water and organic material. Normally, the color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. However, at the edges of teeth the color of enamel sometimes has a slightly blue tone because there is no dentin underlying the enamel. Since enamel is semi translucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the Cementoenamel Junction (or CEJ).
Likewise, dentin is covered by enamel on the crown and cementum on the root and surrounds the entire pulp. By weight, seventy percent of dentin consists of the mineral hydroxylapatite, twenty percent is organic material and ten percent is water. Yellow in appearance, it greatly affects the color of a tooth due to the translucency of enamel. Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle than enamel, is necessary for the support of enamel. There are three types of dentin, primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary dentin is the outermost layer of dentin and borders the enamel. Secondary dentin is a layer of dentin produced after the root of the tooth is completely formed. Tertiary dentin is created in response to a stimulus, such as a carious attack.
Mineralized tissues are biological materials that incorporate minerals into soft matrices to get the stiffness needed for a protective shield or structural support in most cases. For example, mineralized tissues are found in bone, mollusc shells, deep sea sponge Euplectella species, radiolarians, diatoms, antler bone, tendon, cartilage, tooth enamel and dentin. These tissues have been finely tuned to enhance their mechanical capabilities over millions of years of evolution. Thus, mineralized tissues have been the subject of many studies since there is a lot to learn from nature as seen from the growing field of biomimetics. The remarkable structural organization and engineering properties makes these tissues desirable candidates for duplication by artificial means. Mineralized tissues inspire miniaturization, adaptability and multifunctionality. While natural materials are made up of a limited number of components, a larger variety of material chemistries can be used to simulate the same properties in engineering applications. However, the success of biomimetics lies in fully grasping the performance and mechanics of these biological hard tissues before swapping the natural components with artificial materials for engineering design.
Mineralized tissues combine stiffness, low weight, strength and toughness due to the presence of minerals (the inorganic portion) in soft protein networks and tissues (the organic part). There are approximately 60 different minerals generated through biological processes, but the most common ones are calcium carbonate found in seashells and hydroxyapatite present in teeth and bones. Two types of biological tissues have been the target of extensive investigation, namely nacre from seashells and bone that are both high performance natural composites. Many mechanical and imaging techniques, such as nanoindentation and Atomic Force Microscopy (or AFM), are used to characterize these tissues. One of the studies involving mineralized tissues in dentistry is on the mineral phase of dentin in order to understand its alteration with aging. These alterations lead to “transparent” dentin, which is also called sclerotic. It was shown that a “dissolution and reprecipitation” mechanism reigns the formation of transparent dentin. The causes and cures of these conditions can possibly be decoded from further studies on the role of the mineralized tissues involved.
Further, the increasing knowledge on the properties of mineralized tissues, hierarchical structure and role of the different components could not have been made possible without the emergence of imaging techniques and mechanical testing methods. Examples of such techniques and methods are air-abrasive, AFM, Fluorescent staining, infrared spectroscopic imaging, Scanning Electron Microscopy (or SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (or EDS), Transmission Electron Microscopy (or TEM), small angle x-ray scattering and Notch sensitivity. Although, there are many techniques available to characterize mineralized tissues but the best techniques are the ones matched with the objective of an experiment as they emit different information to different accuracies and resolution. Therefore, before choosing a method for evaluation of mineralized tissues, the desired information parameters must first be identified and each method carefully studied to see whether it can satisfy the goal of the study.
One major problem is dental caries, also known as tooth decay or cavity, a disease wherein bacterial processes damage hard tooth structure, i.e. enamel, dentin, and cementum. These tissues progressively break down, producing dental caries (or cavities, holes in the teeth). Two groups of bacteria are responsible for initiating caries: Streptococcus Mutans and Lactobacillus. If left untreated, the disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Today, caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. Cariology is the study of dental caries.
Caries (tooth decay) is the most common human disease, and there is currently no sensitive or accurate means for detecting it in its early stages, when tissue damage can be minimized or even reversed. The inadequacies of existing clinical tools are compounded by the fact that some dentists do not regularly assess patients for caries with x-rays owing to fears associated with exposure to ionizing radiation. These fears are even more acute when assessing children.
Dental caries and dental erosion are endemic in most of the world's population. Caries is a sub-surface disease until the surface breaks down (cavitates) to produce an actual cavity in a tooth. Prior to surface cavitation, the carious lesion has the potential to be arrested or even remineralised. Dental erosion (i.e. the progressive loss of tooth substance from the surface) is a growing problem, largely owing to an increased consumption of acid-containing beverages. There is currently no detection or diagnostic tool capable of measuring small amounts of tooth erosion in the mouth, and current methods to identify caries lesions are insensitive, relatively inaccurate, and highly susceptible to subjective opinions. In recent years dental researchers have begun to look at technologies that might assist dentists in identifying and measuring dental caries and erosion.
In certain applications, primary diagnosis involves inspection of all visible tooth surfaces using a good light source, dental mirror and explorer. In certain other applications, dental radiographs (X-rays) may show dental caries before it is otherwise visible, particularly caries between the teeth. Large dental caries are often apparent to the naked eye, but smaller lesions can be difficult to identify. Visual and tactile inspections along with radiographs are employed frequently among dentists, particularly to diagnose pit and fissure caries. Early, uncavitated caries is often diagnosed by blowing air across the suspect surface, which removes moisture and changes the optical properties of the unmineralized enamel.
However, some dental researchers caution against the use of dental explorers to find caries. For example, if small areas of tooth begin demineralizing but have not yet cavitated, the pressure from the dental explorer could cause a cavity. Since the carious process is reversible before a cavity is present, it may be possible to arrest the caries with fluoride and remineralize the tooth surface. When a cavity is present, a restoration will be needed to replace the lost tooth structure. Still, however, at times pit and fissure caries may be difficult to detect. Bacteria can penetrate the enamel to reach dentin, but then the outer surface may remineralize, especially if fluoride is present. These caries, sometimes referred to as “hidden caries”, may still be visible on x-ray radiographs, but visual examination of the tooth would show the enamel intact or minimally perforated.
Accordingly, there is a need in the art for methods for overall management of dental or oral health based on the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation and systems and apparatuses facilitating implementation of such methods. More specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters for analysis of teeth based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof. Still more specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters, such as novel, early or premature detectability, practitioner capability, subjectivity or knowledge independent diagnosability, enhanced sensitivity, enhanced specificity, enhanced efficiency, greater accuracy, easily operable, rapid, economical, precise, timely and minute variation sensitive, for analysis of teeth based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof.
Opto-Magnetic Methods of Cancer Detection.
Typically, hydrogen bonds are the attractive interaction of hydrogen atoms with electronegative atoms. Specifically, the hydrogen atom must be covalently bonded to another electronegative atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine, to create the bond. Hydrogen bonds occur in both inorganic molecules, such as water and organic molecules, such as DNA.
In certain contexts, hydrogen bonds are often described as electrostatic dipole-dipole interactions. Specifically, as per advanced theory, hydrogen bonds are viewed as metric-dependent electrostatic scalar field between two or more intermolecular bonds. In certain specific contexts related to natural sciences, from the standpoint of quantum mechanics intermolecular interactions are considered as intermolecular forces of attraction between two molecules or atoms. They occur from either momentary interactions between molecules, such as the London dispersion force or permanent electrostatic attractions between dipoles. However, they are also explained using a simple logical approach as in intermolecular forces, or using a quantum mechanical approach.
Using quantum mechanics, it is possible to calculate the electronic structure, energy levels, bond angles, bond distances, dipole moments, and electromagnetic spectra of simple molecules with a high degree of accuracy. Bond distances and angles can be calculated as accurately as they can be measured (distances to a few pm and bond angles to a few degrees). For small molecules, calculations are sufficiently accurate to be useful for determining thermodynamic heats of formation and kinetic activation energy barriers.
Hydrogen bonds have dual property, such as classical (i.e. electrostatic interaction based on Coulomb's law) and quantum (i.e. wave function based on Schrödinger equation).
Thus, hydrogen bond and its nature have engaged the attention of scientific community from the time when the intra and intermolecular bonds were described as non-covalent bonds. However, hydrogen bond became common term when Pauling gave systematic concept of the hydrogen bond. Despite Pauling's proposal that hydrogen bond in water is not merely classical electrical attraction between a positively charged hydrogen atom and a negatively charged oxygen atom, but is also affected by the sigma bonds, the proposal was not considered seriously until it was experimentally shown that hydrogen bond posses covalence and has both classical and quantum properties.
On the basis of data obtained from neutron diffraction experiments it is obvious that product of distance between center of hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a covalent bond d (O—H) of different structures is between 95 picometer (pm) and 120 pm, while distance of center of hydrogen and oxygen atoms in non-covalent bond d (OxxxH) is between 120 pm and 200 pm. However, for each type of matter product value d (O—H) d (OxxxH) is about 162 pm. Systematic investigation and quantitative analysis of bond lengths of O—HxxxO showed that bond-valence parameters of hydrogen bonds follow Golden ratio rule, whose value is around 1.62 pm.
In general, water is matter that is most abundant with hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds have both classical and quantum properties and may be organized in molecular networks. Thus, water via hydrogen bonds may play a significant role in molecular and biomolecular recognition. In particular, two major fundamental problems exist in modern pharmacy, namely (1) understanding mechanism for molecular recognition in water solution, and (2) water structure for drug design. Thus, water structure for drug design is important. This is because modeling ligand-receptor interaction has to include specific geometry, which relates to water structure. In addition, it is well known that hydrogen bonds are a link between two nucleotide chains in DNA and support existence of secondary, ternary and quaternary structure of proteins.
In addition, Deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA) research indicates that both classical and quantum mechanical approach give same phenomenological results for those structures. The reason for similar result is simple. For stationary quantum state Hamiltonian H is a sum of kinetic T and potential V energy, while Lagrangian is a difference between them when system is in equilibrium with external forces. From the energy viewpoint, a pair of similar pictures, one classical and another quantum, of same object with similar results exist. Thus, the goal is to detect how hydrogen bonds participate in water to be more or less at least one of classical and quantum entity.
Accordingly, there is a need in the art for methods for detection of cancer based on the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation and systems and apparatuses facilitating implementation of such methods. More specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters for detection of cervical and endometrial cancer in samples based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof. Still more specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters, such as novel, enhanced and easy interpretability, enhanced and easy detectability, enhanced sensitivity, enhanced specificity, enhanced efficiency, greater accuracy, easily operable, rapid, economical, precise, timely and minute variation sensitive, for analysis of water samples based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof.
Bioimpedance and Skin Hydration Analysis.
Typically, the skin hydration and desquamation are uninterrupted processes in stratum corneum to keep it healthy. Stratum corneum is the outermost layer of epidermis, which in turn is the outermost part of the skin. Particularly, constant hydration of the stratum corneum and constant desquamation of dead skin cells is necessary to keep the skin elastic and even. More particularly, any damage to the processes of hydration and desquamation results in many problems and diseases.
In general, the problem of skin hydration and its evaluation is among the most debated by specialists. Specifically, the measurement (or assessment) of stratum corneum hydration is an important and interesting field of research. Unfortunately, it is also a field where one or more obsolete theories and information still exist.
In general, in biomedical engineering, bioimpedance is the response of a living organism to an externally applied electric current. Bioimpedance is a measure of the opposition to the flow of the electric current through the tissues, which is the opposite of electrical conductivity. This measurement of the bioimpedance (or bioelectrical impedance) of the humans and animals has proved useful as a non-invasive method for the computation of one or more physiological parameters, such as blood flow (often referred to as Bioimpedance Plethysmography) and body composition (known as Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis or BIA).
Still, in general, the impedance of skin is dominated by the stratum corneum at low frequencies. For example, it is commonly stated that skin impedance is determined mainly by the stratum corneum at frequencies below 10 kHz whereas by the viable skin at higher frequencies. Skin impedance may certainly be dependent on one or more factors, such as skin hydration, dimensional and geometrical specifications of electrodes used thereof, and the like, but may nevertheless function as a rough guideline. The Cole-Cole (Cole) equation has been found suitable for modeling most electrical measurements on biological tissue, including skin. However, the impact of the skin hydration by layers to bioelectrical properties is not fully tested.
Bioelectro-physical properties of human skin tissue, like most other soft tissues, exhibit electroviscoelastic behavior. However, in order to acquire complete information about the electroviscoelastic behavior of human skin, it is also obligatory to capture and maintain (i.e. manage) experimental data over a wide range of time scales.
Bio-impedance can be measured by applying electricity from an external source outside the living organism. In order to analyze the skin impedance effectively, it is desirable to introduce the skin impedance model. Additionally, the complex modulus concept is a powerful and widely used tool for characterizing the electroviscoelastic behavior of materials in the frequency domain. In this case, according to the proposed concept, bioimpedance moduli can be regarded as complex quantities.
As per the Bioelectrical Impedance Spectroscopy (or BIS) technique, impedance measurements are done at each frequency, which are subsequently plotted, thereby forming a circular arc. Further, using the electrical engineering modeling mathematics the points on a circular arc can be transformed into an equivalent electrical model, where the values correspond to specific compositional elements. Still further, from the mathematical viewpoint, the fractional integro-differential operators (i.e. fractional calculus) are a generalization of integration and derivation to non-integer order (fractional) operators.
On the other hand, a memory function equation, scaling relationships and structural-fractal behavior of biomaterials and, here, mathematical model based on fractional calculus, were used for the physical interpretation of the Cole-Cole exponents. It must be noted that, three expressions for the impedance, namely Cole-Cole function, Cole-Davidson function and Havriliak-Negami function, allow description of a wide range of experimental data.
Accordingly, there is a need in the art for methods for skin hydration assessment based on the utilization of bioimpedance and fractional calculus and systems and apparatuses facilitating implementation of such methods. More specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of a method for skin hydration assessment based on the utilization of bioimpedance and fractional calculus with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters and systems and apparatuses thereof. Still more specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of a method for skin hydration assessment based on the utilization of bioimpedance and fractional calculus with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters, such as novel, enhanced and easy interpretability, enhanced and easy detectability, enhanced sensitivity, enhanced specificity, enhanced efficiency, greater accuracy, easily operable, rapid, economical, precise, timely and minute variation sensitive, and systems and apparatuses thereof.
Opto-Magnetic Skin Imaging.
Typically, ageing or aging is the accumulation of changes in an organism or object over time. Specifically, ageing in humans refers to a multidimensional process of physical, psychological, and social change. Some dimensions of ageing grow and expand over time, while others decline. Reaction time, for example, may slow with age, while knowledge of world events and wisdom may expand. Research shows that even late in life potential exists for physical, mental, and social growth and development. Ageing is an important part of all human societies reflecting the biological changes that occur, but also reflecting cultural and societal conventions.
More specifically, “physiological aging,” “senescence” or “biological aging” is the combination of processes of deterioration, which follow the period of development of an organism. Stated differently, “physiological aging,” “senescence” or “biological aging” is the change in the biology of an organism as it ages after its maturity. Such changes range from those affecting its cells and their function to that of the whole organism. There are a number of theories why senescence occurs including those that it is programmed by gene expression changes and that it is the accumulative damage of biological processes. Organismal senescence is the aging of whole organisms.
One possible treatment for skin senescence is Blepharoplasty. Blepharoplasty is a surgical procedure that can restore a youthful appearance to the eye area. The upper and lower eyelids are lifted and loose or excess skin and fat tissue are removed from the eye area. The procedure is limited to the eyelids and may be combined with methods to improve other areas of the face. Brow lifts, which raise the eyebrows or keep them from sagging over the eyes, may be recommended to help improve the upper third of the face.
However, this is an invasive procedure and results in post-operative effects and possible complications. For example, a “too tight” or uneven appearance can be caused by the removal of too much skin or uneven amounts of fat. Additional surgeries may be usually required to reverse this problem. On certain occasions, bleeding can occur in the socket.
Similarly, Botulinum Toxin Therapy is another solution. Before treatment, the dermatologist obtains the patient's medical history, including any medications taken. Treatment involves injecting very small amounts of Botulinum toxin directly into the underlying facial muscles to relax them. A tiny needle is used; the procedure is well tolerated and takes just a few minutes with no “down time” or prolonged recovery period.
However, this therapy is intrusive and Botulinum toxin takes effect about 3 to 7 days after treatment. The improvement generally lasts about 3 to 4 months; the effect gradually fades as muscle action returns. Patients require re-injection at various intervals. With repeated treatments, atrophy (thinning) of the muscle may occur.
Accordingly, there is a need in the art for methods for analysis of skin based on the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation and systems and apparatuses facilitating implementation of such methods. More specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters for analysis of skin based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof. Still more specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters, such as novel, enhanced and easy interpretability, enhanced and easy detectability, enhanced sensitivity, enhanced specificity, enhanced efficiency, greater accuracy, easily operable, rapid, highly interactive, fuzzy logic knowledge-based, artificial neural network knowledge-based, economical, precise, timely and minute variation sensitive, for analysis of skin based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof.
Further, there is a need in the art for methods for imaging and analysis of skin based on the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation and systems and apparatuses facilitating implementation of such methods. More specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters for imaging and analysis of skin based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof. Still more specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters, such as novel, enhanced and easy interpretability, enhanced and easy detectability, enhanced sensitivity, enhanced specificity, enhanced efficiency, greater accuracy, easily operable, rapid, highly interactive, fuzzy logic knowledge-based, artificial neural network knowledge-based, economical, precise, timely and minute variation sensitive single handed operability, motion tolerant, skin-based inductive chargeability, lens-independent (or -free), reduced complexity or simplicity, economical, disease diagnosability, rapid drug screenability or high throughput screenability, easy integrability or couplability to portable communication devices and slim configuration, for imaging and analysis of skin based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof.
Opto-Magnetic Methods for Skin Characterization.
Broadly, skin is made up of three main different skin layers, namely epidermis, dermis and subcutis. The epidermis is tightly connected to the dermis by a basement membrane. The basement membrane is very thin layer between the epidermis and dermis. The basement membrane structurally and energetically separates the epidermis and the dermis. These layers exhibit different types of light propagation owing to the fact that they are composed of different types of cellular and extracellular molecules.
On average, the thickness of epidermis is approximately 200 μm. However, the thickness of epidermis varies and is up to approximately 2 mm, depending on the location on the body. Still, however, the thickness of the epidermis varies according to the volume of the water held thereof.
Anatomically, the epidermis is divided into five sub layers, namely stratum corneum (or horny cell layer), stratum lucidum (or clear layer), stratum granulosum (or granular layer), stratum spinosum (or prickle cell layer) and stratum basale (or basal cell layer). Metabolically, the epidermis is an active tissue. Specifically, one type of epidermal cells, keratinocytes, moves upward to the outer surface. This process is called turn-over, and takes a minimum of approximately 28 days to a maximum of approximately 72 days. During this process keratinocytes change their structure and physiological function.
More specifically, keratinocytes are produced in the stratum basale, which holds approximately 10% of the epidermal water. With aging, this layer becomes thinner and losses the ability to retain water. Basal cells, through the process of turn-over, make their shape somewhat flatter and form stratum spinosum layer with about 20 layers that lie on the top of the basal cell layer. The thickness of the stratum spinosum layer ranges from a minimum of approximately 60 μm to a maximum of approximately 150 μm, and holds about 35% of epidermal water. In the next turnover process organelles, such as nuclei and mitochondria, start to resolve. Cells are increasingly filled with keratin fibers and contain less intracellular water than basal and spinosum cells. However, this layer called stratum granulosum, is about 5 μm thick and has very well ordered lipid-water layers, from 5 to 20, depending on the skin condition. Water layers are thin from 20 to 50 nm.
Based on a common standpoint disclosed in one or more literature, the skin is usually observed as a simple structure with equivalent electrical model, which includes general properties of epidermis, basal membrane and dermis. Further, there are numerous conventional approaches to skin characterization. However, the emerging technologies have been mainly focused on non-invasive methods in order to limit pain to patients. Lines of investigations cover aspect related to dermatology or dermocosmetic science by exploiting characteristic measurements related to one or more properties of the skin, such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, acoustic, piezoelectric and morphological.
Previous studies have focused on correlating the skin mechanical properties with age, gender, anatomical site, and hydration. However, age-related studies have reached disparate conclusions. Despite the many devices that have been developed in the last twenty years, a lot still remains to be accomplished in terms of comparability of the measures and standardization of the results. In fact, even when dealing with the same parameters, different devices could yield different values. Finally, methods relying only on mechanical properties cannot assess topography measurements of the skin.
Accordingly, there is a need in the art for methods for characterization of skin based on the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation and systems and apparatuses facilitating implementation of such methods. More specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters for characterization of skin samples based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof. Still more specifically, there is a need for the design and implementation of an Opto-Magnetic method with enhanced qualitative and quantitative parameters, such as novel, easily operable, rapid, economical, precise, timely and minute variation sensitive, complex analytical capability, nanomaterials detectability and analyzability and dual process approach, for characterization of skin samples based on Opto-Magnetic properties of light-matter interaction and systems and apparatuses thereof.